Are We Teaching An Effective Manner, And If It - 1432 Words

Education Evolved Having the largest frontal lobe of any animal, letting us process complex and abstract thoughts, we humans have a clear advantage when it comes to understanding our world (Lewis). It is a sad case when the human mind is not trained to make the most of it. Understanding our world is as fundamental to the human race as swimming is to fish. As John Dewey put it â€Å"...This process begins unconsciously almost at birth, and is continually shaping the individual s powers, saturating his consciousness, forming his habits, training his ideas, and arousing his feelings and emotions†. It does not matter if it takes place in a small tribe or on a national scale, we are always learning. The question is, are we teaching in an effective manner, and if not, how can we? Education has been with us since time immemorial. One definition of education according to Google Dictionary is â€Å"an enlightening experience† (Google Search). The thing about an enlightening experience is that no classroom is needed, anyone can have one at any time. The problem is that without any structured education, one individual might have such an enlightenment while another is left in the dark. A dissonance then arises between them. Such a simple thing as knowing and not knowing can lead to lower social status (Hickman) and lower quality jobs (Bernstein) among other discrepancies. Ideally education would bridge the gap between the privileged and the underprivileged. Sadly, we live in a world whereShow MoreRelatedWhat Effective Practice Really Means1690 Words   |  7 PagesIn everyday life if we want to improve on something that we have done, we must be open to reflection, so that we can identify our strengths and weaknesses and find areas that can be improved on. A s the GTCNI competence Framework states, â€Å"Teachers should keep curricular, subject and pedagogical knowledge up-to-date through reflection, self-study and collaboration with colleagues.† (Internet source 1) By taking this into consideration it is then evident that just like in everyday life, if teachersRead MoreEducation Philosophy and Rationale1846 Words   |  7 PagesEducation Philosophy and Rationale Every instructor or a teacher has a certain ideology that he or she follows throughout the teaching careers which underpins everything. These ideology or philosophy is based on our assumptions about our definition of learning and our views on the nature of mankind, the purpose of education, the nature of the curriculum, the role of the teacher and the learner, and the nature of the instructional process. Similarly, I had a certain philosophy which focuses on introducesRead MoreWood Butcher by Norman Hindley, Behind Grandmas House by Gary Soto, and Manners by Elizabeth Bishop954 Words   |  4 PagesHindley, Behind Grandmas House by Gary Soto, and Manners by Elizabeth Bishop For this paper I will be discussing three poems. They are Wood Butcher by Norman Hindley, Behind Grandmas House by Gary Soto, and Manners by Elizabeth Bishop. I will be examining the commonRead MorePoems: Family and Gary Soto926 Words   |  4 Pagess House by Gary Soto, and Manners by Elizabeth Bishop. I will be examining the common theme I found throughout the three poems. I found that to be how the relatives teach lessons to their relation of a younger generation and the different approaches to their teaching. To start off I will discuss the Wood Butcher by Norman Hindley. I believe the way the father taught the son was some what like an apprenticeship. The line I was your helper, and that first year We worked weekends through mostRead MoreMotivation And The Motivation Of The Learning Process1130 Words   |  5 Pagesaerospace, robotics and manufacturing. Instead of giving an inane introduction, I embed my research topics in the lectures so students can get an idea of how the technology is applied to the real world. I intend to soften the boundary between teaching and research so that students in my class realize they are not here for spoon-feeding but for solving a practical engineering problem. After students get motivated, it is time to show them the big picture of the course. That is, what they canRead MoreMy Experience At Pleasant Valley High School900 Words   |  4 PagesPleasant Valley High School, I believe that I have displayed many aspects of professionalism, which is a major component of my own teaching philosophy. I initially thought that professionalism meant outer appearance and appropriate language/behavior. I still do believe that this is a crucial part of professionalism. I am a firm believer in conducting myself in a manner that will represent my family, school, and students well. One example of my determination to act as a professional both in and outRead MoreHow Teacher Leaders Connect and Monitor Student Learning Essay1390 Words   |  6 Pageswith ensuring that all students receive a quality education regardless of race, origin, or learning ability. The purpose of this interview is to obtain effective teacher strategies that show how effective teachers are responsible for managing and monitoring student learning. In this interview, I asked four questions that support the delivery of effective instruction, as it relates to trends and issues in managing and monitoring student learning. There are also responses to questions about the strategiesRead MorePtlls Theory Assignment 11600 Wo rds   |  7 PagesPTLLS Theory Assignment 1 Review your role, responsibilities and boundaries as a teacher in terms of the teaching/ training cycle. Teaching is an extremely important profession as we are responsible for training up the future generations of our community, country and in effect, the world. In order to be a successful and effective teacher there are some basic skills and competencies that one must possess. The experiences that students have inside (and outside) our classrooms, schools and variousRead MoreAn assumption according to the oxford dictionary is defined as ‘A thing that is accepted as true or1600 Words   |  7 Pagesassumptions that we think are in our own best interests but that actually work against us in the long term.’ (Stephen D. Brookfield, 1995). Unfortunately, for teachers there are a lot of hegemonic assumptions out there regarding the best strategies to deal with classroom management, student – teacher relationship, disciplinary actions etc. but for this report I am going to discuss the one which was most evident in my experience during School Placement. Reflecting on my teaching practice one key hegemonicRead More My Teaching Philosophy Essay637 Words   |  3 PagesMy Teaching Philosophy Educational technology is a driving force to restructure schools. Technology is an appealing medium which can potentially facilitate effective teaching and learning as well as increase efficiency and productivity. At present, a variety of technologies are available to assist learners in the acquisition of knowledge and skills. Many of the new technologies can support research, analysis, problem-solving, and communication process more effectively than the traditional resources

Essay on The Rise and Reign of Emperor Augustus - 1389 Words

On the 23rd of September 63BC a baby boy was born. Little did his family know that this amazing child was going to be one of the greatest politicians in Rome, he was also going to touch the lives of many Roman Citizens and to be remembered by thousands of people many years after his death. He was to rule an empire that stretched from Spain to Judea. Turn the Mediterranean Sea into a peaceful Roman Lake and was eventually to be worshipped as a god. The future Emperor of Rome was called Gaius Julius Octavious, whom we all know now as Augustus. In this section I will be analysing how Octavian/Augustus rose to become the first Emperor of Rome and his reign thereafter. I will also be looking at how he gained his position and what being and†¦show more content†¦At the time of Julius Caesar’s assassination Octavian was planning to take a senior military role in the Parthian expedition of 44BC. He was with the army at Apollonia, in what is now Albania and was only eighteen at the time, which made his rivals consistently underestimate him and his abilities. After hearing of Caesars death he started to head back to Rome, learning on the way that he was now Caesar’s new adopted son and heir (as written in Caesars will). In his will Caesar has named Octavian as his successor and has left him three quarters of his estate, he also acquired the name Gaius Iulius Caesar Octavious, Caesar’s slaves, including secretarial staff and those who handled finances Augustus raised a force of 3000 men from his â€Å"Father’s† veterans. But among the supporters of Caesar, Octavian also had a natural opponent - Mark Antony, the dictators trusted lieutenant. Mark Antony was not at all like Octavian. He was a lot more attractive and physically stronger. Octavian had called upon Antony for help and support but was disappointed to find that he was jealous because Octavian had been named heir rather than himself. However, in the year 43BC after a period of unstableness in Rome, Octavian and Antony came to the realisation that they needed to make a political alliance. Thus creating the Second Triumvirate, after the first which included Julius Caesar,Show MoreRelatedRoman Impact on Christianity1647 Words   |  7 Pagesand negatively, but the Message and the fervor of its followers has been able to stand the tests of man and time. The Pax Romana’s reign over the Roman Empire can be followed after the end of the Republic Civil Wars and the rise of Augustus in 27 BC. During this time, fighting relatively ceased with some skirmishes still occurring in Spain and in the Alps and Augustus instated himself as the lead power of Rome. Alternatively, the name speaks for itself: Pax Romana translates to â€Å"Roman peace†. SomeRead More Augustus Caesar: The Greatest Ruler in the Ancient World Essay1367 Words   |  6 Pagestheir life to becoming great. Roman Emperor Augustus Caesar was part of the latter due to his achievements that set the foundation for an empire devastated by civil war. Despite the turmoil of the Roman Empire after the assassination of his adoptive father, Julius Caesar, he led Rome to social, political and economic prosperity and stability. His military tactics marked the beginning of a dynasty that saw a massive expansion of the Roman Empire. Thus, Augustus Caesar’s contribu tions to the RomanRead MoreThe Roman And Roman History1542 Words   |  7 PagesEmperor Augustus ruled over a period that is known as the Roman Peace (Pax Romana), from his reign in 27 B.C to his death in 14 A.D. In Virgil’s character Anchises (As seen above), Augustus is portrayed to have brought to fruition a golden age in Roman history. His ability to turn Rome from the ravages of civil war into a prosperous empire was accomplished through the harnessing of his exceptional administrative powers. Emphasis placed on religious reinvigoration and social reform helped forge aRead MoreRome s Transformation From Republic1584 Words   |  7 PagesRoman emperor (though he never claimed the title), Augustus led Rome’s transformation from republic to empire during the chaotic years following the assassination of his great-uncle and adoptive father Julius Caesar. Augustus became one of Rome’s greatest leaders and he established the principate, the form of government un der which Rome ruled its empire for many years. HISTORICAL CONTEXT Caesar Augustus, was born Gaius Julius Octavius in Rome, Italy and was alive from 63 BC - AD 14. Augustus’ fatherRead MoreTiberius- Roman Empire1507 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"Tiberius was the second emperor of Rome and a highly-successful soldier whose reputation for arrogance and debauchery is probably unfounded† (BBC History) Tiberius was a significant Julio-Claudian emperor who applied a great deal of contributions to the Roman Empire during his reign†¦ The Julio-Claudian dynasty refers to the first five  Roman Emperors:  Augustus, Tiberius,  Caligula  (also known as Gaius),  Claudius, and  Nero and the family to which they belonged. They ruled the  Roman Empire  from itsRead MoreAugustus Reign Essay563 Words   |  3 PagesAugustus, during his reign as emperor proved effective in ruling through the ideas he implemented to solidify his country. Tacitus stated â€Å"nullo adversante† which translates into English â€Å"Wholly unopposed† (http://janusquirinus.org/Quotes/QuotesHome.html) this identifies the effectiveness of his reign and the strength he had politically over Rome. Important actions such as the creation of religious and moral reforms, the constitutional agreement and the implementation of the building programme allRead MoreAugustus Ceasar of Rome Essay1051 Words   |  5 PagesAugustus Caesar of Rome (Julius Caesar Research Project) â€Å"I found Rome a city of bricks and left it a city of marble.† ~ Augustus Caesar Early Life Augustus was born on the 23rd of September in 63 B.C.E as Gaius Octavius Thurinus 20 miles away from Rome in Velletri, to Atai, Caesar’s niece, and Gaius Octavius. He went by Octavius from his birth in 63 B.C until his adoption in 44 B.C, which then he took up the name of Octavian, and finally in 26 B.C, he wentRead MoreThe Legacy Of Claudius Nero By Marcus Tullius Cicero1636 Words   |  7 Pagestrials and tribulations that have plagued us in recent times, and in particular during the long reign of Tiberius Claudius Nero Drusus Caesar, known simply to the people as Tiberius. It is worth noting at this point that I, (name here) have, during my long life served in my greatest capacity under the reign of all of our emperors, Augustus, Tiberius, the mad Gaius, and finally under our current emperor, Claudius. After 65 long and burdensome years, I am at last able to divulge my knowledge of theRead MoreEssay On Julius Caesar928 Words   |  4 PagesAs the first Roman emperor (though he never claimed the title for himself), Augustus led Rome’s transformation from republic to empire during the tumultuous years following the assassination of his great-uncle and adoptive father Julius Caesar. He shrewdly combined military might, institution-building and lawmaking to become Rome’s sole ruler, laying the foundations of the 200-year Pax Romana (Roman Peace) and an empire that lasted, in various forms, for nearly 1,500 years. Ask HISTORY: What doesRead MoreThe Silver Age Of Latin Literature898 Words   |  4 Pagesof action such as Julius Caesar and statesmen and orators such as Cicero who was able to express abstract thought with clarity. The golden Age gave rise to the idea that an author should not try to say new things but to say old things better, with rhetorical thoughts and speech being mastered until they had become instinctive. The Silver Age saw the rise of Authors such as Seneca, Pliny the Elder, Petronius, and Tacitus. During the Silver Age the content of the literature took a darker tone becoming

Spies in the American Revolution free essay sample

The job of a spy was and still is to seek out information concerning the enemy. This includes numbers of soldiers, amounts of food or weapons, locations of the enemy and future attack plans. Without a number of spies seeking these facts, an army is lost. They do not know where to move or how to fight. A spy has to be someone dependable. If they forget to record some detail, many lives can be lost so they learn to be specific. A secret agent must also be very brave. Spies had to conceal their gathering of facts from the enemy or they would be under suspicion.Soldiers were told to always be alert to questioning people. If information was not gathered secretly, the life of the spy is in danger. The punishment of an enemy spy was death or imprisonment. Usually a spy was killed because the job of keeping an extra person alive required food and guards. We will write a custom essay sample on Spies in the American Revolution or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page By killing a spy, leaders threatened unknown spies. Once a spy has an amount of important information concerning the enemy, their job is only half over. Now they must transport the valuable facts to someone important who will know what to do with them, and of course you Anton be caught with suspicious material.Messages were relayed by many different techniques. Spies used a great variety of secret methods to send their information. Secret ink was popular because the ways of revealing the messages were different. A letter was written in regular ink concerning nothing of importance. Then a spy would write in invisible ink between the lines of the false letter. A small mark would be put in one of the corners of the letter to let the reader know how to make the hidden message appear. Most letters were either heated or had chemicals poured over them to let denied messages be known.If a reader was not familiar with the mark in one of the corners, they might heat a paper that should be chemically treated or vice versa. The letter would be ruined because it was not read properly. This prevented enemy leaders from reading the letter, but it also resulted in confusion between the spy and the receiver. Some letters were meant to be read by the enemy. These were called captured letters. A letter would include false information concerning an army, which would be captured by the other side. The enemy would act according to the message, and thus be aught unawares.A complicated form of cipher used published books to reveal codes. Using either Commentaries on the Laws of England by Blackstone or Nathan Baileys Dictionary as a key, the cipher writer would first find the word he wanted to write in the key. Instead of writing the word directly in the letter, they would write down the page number, the line number and the number of the word counting from the left. Therefore, three numbers represented each word. Letters with secret information were also concealed inside of small spaces. A quill letter had a letter rolled up and edited inside a quill pen.Some shoes were constructed with hidden compartments in the heel to hide messages. Spies usually carried their letters on small pieces of paper so that on capture, they could swallow the condemning news. A mask letter took two letters to mail. First, a mask, which consisted of a piece of paper with a shape cut out of it, was mailed to the receiver. The letter writer used the same shape to write his message. After he wrote the letter, the blanks were filled with other words to make the letter seem ordinary and unimportant. This second letter was mailed and hen the receiver placed the mask over the second letter, they could read the mystery words. Spies were occasionally single people who gained information and reported back to someone with the message, but more often they were parts of organizations dedicated to spying. The most famous was called the Committee of Correspondence. This started out as a group of people who were in charge of communicating with other countries. They did their work openly until the Revolutionary war started and they became the Committee of Secret Correspondence.The five members communicated with France and eventually gained the support from them that helped to win the war. The French sided with the Patriots because the Committee of Secret Correspondence and gained supporters by telling them how the British were fighting with them. Another well-known group was called the Culler Ring. This was a network of secret agents based around New York City and Long Island. Major Benjamin Talladega formed it in August 1778. The British forces led by General Henry Clinton were hard to defeat, so these spies focused on his troops.The main leader was Abraham Hoodlum whose code name was Samuel Culler, Sir. He kept the others in the Culler Gang informed of changes in locations and transfer of information. This was one of many organizations dedicated to the importance of secretly gathering information about the enemy. Some people may believe that spies were especially trained people who dedicated their life to spying and who had all of the latest gadgets. This may be the way of spying today, but was not so during the Revolutionary War. Spies and secret agents of this time were ordinary people. They were not trained and not all could read and write.These people decided that they loved their country more than themselves and were willing to risk their lives for a cause that would influence the future of their country. Most of the spies had jobs as shopkeepers or something similar to that. Many of the women spies became spies b accident. The British soldiers took over houses of Patriots to use them as barracks or meeting places. The family that lived in the house was forced to live with the soldiers. This was a great way to gain important information because the soldiers would speak freely when they felt well at ease.One woman over heard some soldiers talking about an attack and she gave a passing soldier the information who relayed it to Washington and the army was saved. Most spies left their occupations to become spies. They would move to a new town where no one knew them and change their name and occupation. Some times a spy would enlist in the army of the enemy. This was one of the sideways to gain information, but they had to fight against those that they were trying to help and thus occasionally they would not be trusted. Most spies became peddlers or sold goods that they knew the enemy needed.This way they associated with the soldiers and sometimes the generals and gained facts. Paul Revere was one very important spy. He was originally a silversmith who gained much appreciation from his trade. Paul was an active Patriot in Boston and Leader of the Sons of Liberty. He made engravings of the Boston Massacre as propaganda. He was also involved in the Boston Tea Party. Paul Revere gained most of his fame from his daring ride on April 18-19. Mr.. Revere rode from Boston telexing to warn Patriot leaders John Hancock and Sam Adams that the British forces were marching to capture rebel arms.

Integral Theory of Polysemy Essay Example

Integral Theory of Polysemy Essay Integral Theory of Polysemy is agued which represents the most general view on the problem of polysemy. The notion of polysemy is essentially extended and is applied to both lexical and grammatical language levels. It is argued that polysemy regulates and systematizes both vocabulary and grammar and may be considered as a factor which is organizing the language system. Keywords: polysemy, homonymy , lexical seme, part-of-speech seme, lexical and lexical-grammatical polysemy. The definitions of polysemy existing in linguistic literature are practically identical a word is considered to be polysemantic if it has several meanings that are semantically related to each other. Such definitions reveal the very essence of polysemy coexistence in the semantic structure of a word of several meanings which relations with each other are those of semantic derivation. The existence of polysemy is due to the law of asymmetric duality of a language sign, opened by S. Kartsevsky, according to which the signified and the signifier are asymmetric and exist in the state of unsteady equilibrium. The signified aspires to be expressed by new means while the signifier tries to attain new functions. As far as the law of asymmetric duality of a language sign is universal, the universal character of polysemy should be considered obvious. The idea about the universal character of this linguistic phenomenon was stressed more than once (see the works of such prominent scholars as S. Ullmann, R. Budagov, A. We will write a custom essay sample on Integral Theory of Polysemy specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Integral Theory of Polysemy specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Integral Theory of Polysemy specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Smirnitsky, V. Vinogradov). Polysemy is justly considered to be a necessary means of language economy. As S. Ullmann puts it, â€Å"polysemy is an indispensable resource of language economy. It would be altogether impracticable to have separate terms for every referent† (Ullmann 1959, p. 118). It should be mentioned that the idea of polysemy as a means of language economy goes back to Aristotle who stressed that the number of words in a natural language is limited while the number of objects in the real world is unlimited. Thus it is inevitable for a word to be polysemantic. Speaking about the reasons of polysemy we should also point out that this phenomenon is closely connected with the very essence of the language and is a characteristic feature of speech. As S. Ullmann wrote, â€Å"The ability of the name to denote several senses is one of the basic peculiarities of human speech† (Ullmann 1951, p. 48). The problem of studying polysemy is closely connected with that of homonymy. It should be pointed out that the definitions of homonymy, like those of polysemy, do not differ greatly. Words are considered to be homonymous if their form is identical while the meanings are not semantically related. Some scholars, however, insist that homonyms may be characterized not only by the absence of semantic derivation between their meanings, but also by differences in their grammatical (part-of-speech) meaning (see Malakhovsky 1989, p. 7–8). Thus all cases of conversion or any other transitions at the part-of-speech level despite the obvious fact of close semantic relations of the meanings are considered to be homonyms. Such point of view, though advocated by quite a number of linguists, may be disputed. The very fact of acquiring by a sememe a new part-of-speech seme can not necessarily lead to homonymy. The main (and the only! ) indication of homonymy is that of absence of semantic relations between the meanings, like the main indication of polysemy is the fact of existence of semantic derivation. The problem of differentiation between polysemy and homonymy has become traditional. The criteria of such differentiation are rather numerous. The most appropriate to our mind is the so-called semantic criterion, based on semantic derivation of the meanings of a polysemantic word. In case of semantic relations of the meanings we deal with polysemy, in case of absence of such relations with homonymy. Other criteria of differentiation between polysemy and homonymy (word-building, syntactic, distributional, synonymous and antonymous) are not universal and may be considered additional, serving to confirm the results of the application of the semantic criterion. As far as semantic criterion is concerned, it is universal and may be applied to all cases when it is necessary to establish the difference between polysemy and homonymy. It should be mentioned that this criterion follows from the very essence of the language phenomena under consideration. As the definitions of polysemy and homonymy adopted in modern linguistics are of semantic character, it is quite obvious that the criterion of their differentiation should be also based on semantic principles. Strictly speaking, there is even no need in singling out the special criterion of differentiation between polysemy and homonymy. As Yu. Apresyan rightly puts it, any search of criteria for differentiation of linguistic objects (a word, a sentence, a homonym, an idiom, etc. more vividly than anything else designates that there are no strict definitions of the corresponding linguistic phenomena. If such strict definitions existed there would be no need in finding any additional (those not used in the definitions themselves) â€Å"criteria† for their differentiation. In case of absence of strict definitions no additional criteria would save the situation ( Apresyan 1974, p. 184). We have already stated that the definitions of both polysemy and homonymy are of semantic character. Consistent application of these definitions to each concrete case of material identity of lexemes will answer the question whether the word identity is preserved or torn. The above-mentioned will hold if applied to all cases of polysemy â€Å"ordinary† lexical and lexical-grammatical polysemy. The terms â€Å"lexical-grammatical polysemy† or â€Å"categorical polysemy† were introduced not long ago. The first of these terms was used by prof. V. Abaev in his famous paper on homonyms which started the discussion on homonymy in the Soviet Union (Abaev 1957, p. 43). The second one was introduced by S. Katsnelson (Katsnelson 1972, p. 173-174). Both of the authors use these terms to denote practically the same polysemy at the part-of-speech level. To denote such kind of polysemy we would prefer to use the first of the above-mentioned terms â€Å"lexical-grammatical polysemy† as it better reflects the essence of the phenomenon under consideration polysemy at the part-of-speech level, i. e. at the level of lexical- grammatical classes. As for the term â€Å"categorical polysemy† it doesn’t make accent on the part-of-speech character of this kind of polysemy and thus is considered to be less convenient. Besides, as it will be shown below, S. Katsnelson applies this term not to all cases of polysemy at the part-of-speech level, but only to a special type of such polysemy. Lexical-grammatical polysemy may be illustrated at the example of the substantive and verbal sememes of the lexeme measure in a great measure (substantive sememe) and to measure one’s desires by one’s means (verbal sememe). The semantic ties between these sememes are obvious which makes it possible to admit the fact of existence here of a particular type of polysemy lexical-grammatical polysemy. Inclusion of sememes with different part-of-speech semes into the semantic structure of one and the same word is due in this case, as in case of ordinary lexical polysemy, to semantic ties between the sememes, i. e. to semantic derivation. It should be noted, that the phenomenon which we define as lexical-grammatical polysemy was studied by many linguists. However, most of these investigations were not connected with the problem of polysemy and didn’t even try to examine the phenomenon under consideration from this the point of view. There prevails structurally morphological approach to the phenomenon and it is considered mainly within the theory of parts of speech. This can be vividly illustrated by the terminology used by linguists: part of speech transition, transformation, lexical-grammatical substitution, functional shift, syntactic derivation, polyfunctionality,polycategorisation, conversion. Some authors use the terms substantivation,adverbialisation, adjectivation, prepositionalisation, etc. to designate transition into a concrete part of speech. Despite a great variety of points of view on this phenomenon, the essence of all of them is practically the same they all declare its word-formation character and admit that the lexemes got as the result of it are homonyms (grammatical, lexical-grammatical, morphological, functional, transpositional, etc. ). It should be noted that the treatment of part of speech transition as a special kind of homonymy or a word-formation process is debatable. The thing is that semantic relations between sememes with different part-of-speech semes are usually preserved, that’s why we can’t speak about homonymy. This phenomenon can’t be treated as a word-formation process either, as in many cases changing of part-of-speech status is not followed by any lexico-semantic changes which are usually supposed by the word-formation process. One can assume that in case of a unit functioning as different parts of speech we deal not with homonyms and not with word-formation, but with a special type of polysemy the polysemy at the part-of-speech level or lexical-grammatical polysemy. It should be noted that the possibility of such type of polysemy was mentioned by many Russian and foreign linguists. Thus academician Shcherba wrote that formal features of grammatical categories are not reduced to purely morphological ones, so one and the same word may represent different categories (Shcherba 1974, p. 81). V. Nikitevich writes that in case of semantic identity transposition doesn’t form a new lexeme (Nikitevich 1971, p. 107). E. Kovalevskaya speaks about a possibility for a word to function as two parts of speech (Kovalevskaya 1977, p. 59). N. Gvishiani admits the ability of English words to be correlated with categorical meaning of different parts of speech (Gvishiani 1979, p. 75). I. Tyshler points that words produced by means of conversion are not lexical-grammatical homonyms as in this case there is no semantic gap between them (Tyshler 1966, p. 3–4). S. Bogdanov notes that we shouldn’t oppose to each other the lexemes which are materially identical and differ only by syntactic functions (Bogdanov 1998, p. 31). Analogous thoughts are also displayed by some foreign authors. Thus Henry Sweet pointed out that the mere change of a verb into noun can hardly be said to make a new word of it (Sweet 1900, p. 38). A. Kennedy mentions that at times a word becomes a sort of hybrid, simultaneously functioning as two different parts of speech (Kennedy 1935, p. 317). Robert Waddel points out â€Å"that when a word is shifted from one function to another, it retains its own essential meaning: the word water conveys the idea of wetness †¦ whether it is used as a noun or as a verb: He will carry the water (n) in a pail and water (v) the bush. The difference is in the grammatical or functional meaning, the part played in the sentence pattern. Or, we may say, water is here used as two different parts of speech† (Waddel 1951, p. 1). However practically all these authors, both Russian and foreign, actually describing the phenomenon of lexical-grammatical polysemy, do not consider it within the framework of the theory of polysemy and do not study the correlation between lexical and lexical-grammatical polysemy. Due to this the notion of lexical-grammatical polysemy remains theoretically undefined which negatively influences both the development of the theory of polysemy and practical interpretation of the concrete cases of polyfunctional lexemes. The term â€Å"polysemy† with reference to this phenomenon, besides V. Abaev and S. Katsnelson, is used by S. Ullmann and G. Vorontsova. Thus, S. Ullmann calls conversion syntactic polysemy (Ullmann 1962, c. 32). G. Vorontsova states, that polyfunctionality represents a special kind of grammatical polysemy (Vorontsova 1960, p. 50). Indeed in case of semantic relations between the sememes of a lexeme regardless of the fact whether they belong to one and the same or different parts of speech we should speak about polysemy. This is a special kind of polysemy lexical-grammatical one. It must be mentioned that such point of view does not contradict the parts of speech theory and does not doubt the existence of parts of speech as lexical-grammatical classes of words. Parts of speech can be represented as intersecting circles, some areas of which overlap. Words demonstrating lexical-grammatical polysemy will be situated in the intersecting parts of these circles. Sememes possessing different part-of-speech semes have as a rule different orphological indication. But we should point out that these morphological indicators of lexical-grammatical meaning are only formalsigns of parts of speech. They just confirm functioning of the word in a new lexical-grammatical meaning but not determine it. The main criterion of ascribing the word to this or that part of speech is the semantic one, i. e. presence of a certain part-of-speech seme. Morphological indicators of part-of-speech status are additional, secondary, supplementary. We should also mention that lexical-grammatical polysemy does not doubt the question of the word borders. As it is known, the main conditions for preservation of the word identity are those of the common sound form and semantic ties between the sememes. In case of lexical-grammatical polysemy both criteria are observed as the very notion of polysemy presupposes both the existence of one lexeme and semantic derivation of its sememes. The problem of lexical-grammatical polysemy is closely connected with that of lexical-grammatical variation. If within the frames of lexical-grammatical polysemy proper sememes being semantically related to each other differ in both lexical meaning and lexical-grammatical semes, in case of lexical-grammatical variants sememes have the same lexical meaning but different part-of-speech semes. Compare: 1) He went up. 2) He went up the stairs. In both cases one and the same lexical meaning â€Å"upwards† is realized. This lexical meaning presupposes indication of a certain centre of spatial coordination relative to which location or direction is determined. This centre of coordination may be expressed in the sentence explicitly or may be left implicit. In case of explicit expression of the centre of coordination the prepositional variant of the lexical meaning is realized (see example 2), in case there is no indication of this centre of coordination in the sentence, the same lexical meaning is realized, but in its adverbial variant (see example 1). The phenomenon of lexical-grammatical variation in this case may be illustrated by the following scheme: Lexical meaningPart – of – speech semes upwardsadverbial prepositional As it can be seen from the scheme, in case of lexical-grammatical variation one and the same lexical meaning corresponds to two (or more) different part-of-speech semes. These part-of-speech semes are in complementary distribution and are realized in different contexts. In case of lexical-grammatical polysemy proper each lexical meaning corresponds to a separate part-of-speech seme. The correlation of lexical and grammatical semes in case of polysemy at the part-of-speech level thus has a double character: in case of lexical-grammatical polysemy proper a separate lexical meaning corresponds to a definite lexical-grammatical seme, in case of lexical-grammatical variants one lexical meaning corresponds to two or more different part-of-speech semes. Realization of this or that lexical-grammatical seme in this case depends on the context. It should be noted that S. Katsnelson, defining what he calls categorical polysemy, in reality defines the phenomenon of lexical-grammatical variation (Katsnelson 1972, p. 73–174). Such simplified understanding of polysemy at the part-of-speech level doesn’t seem quite appropriate. Lexical-grammatical variation certainly represents derivation at the part-of-speech level, but it should be considered a special, simpler case of lexical-grammatical polysemy proper while lexical-grammatical polysemy proper demands both le xical and part-of-speech derivation, lexical-grammatical variation presupposes only part-of-speech derivation, lexical meaning of lexical-grammatical variants is identical. The reason of considering sememes with different part-of-speech semes belonging to one and the same lexeme in case of lexical-grammatical variation is the identity of lexical meanings, in case of lexical-grammatical polysemy their semantic derivation. Thus we can speak about two types of lexical-grammatical polysemy lexical-grammatical polysemy proper and lexical-grammatical variation, the latter being a special, simpler case of lexical-grammatical polysemy as it presupposes only part-of-speech derivation without the semantic one. Taking into consideration the above-mentioned we may expand the notion of polysemy and propose its hierarchical description. As we have just stated, lexical-grammatical variation is a special, simpler case of lexical-grammatical polysemy. If in case of lexical-grammatical polysemy proper the sememes, being semantically derived from each other, differ in both lexical-grammatical and lexical semes, in case of lexical-grammatical variation lexical semes are the same and the sememes differ only in their lexical-grammatical semes. Thus in case of lexical-grammatical polysemy proper both possible types of polysemy lexical and lexical-grammatical are realized, while in case of lexical-grammatical variation we witness realization of only one type of polysemy lexical-grammatical one. Analogous phenomenon may be observed if we compare lexical-grammatical polysemy with the â€Å"ordinary† lexical one. While the sememes demonstrating lexical-grammatical polysemy differ in both lexical and lexical-grammatical semes, in case of lexical olysemy the sememes differ only in lexical semes, their lexical-grammatical meaning is identical. Thus lexical polysemy, like lexical-grammatical variation realizes only one type of polysemy out of the two possible. The comparison of lexical, lexical-grammatical polysemy and lexical-grammatical variation makes it possible to propose the two-level hierarchical description of polysemy. Lexical-grammatical variation together with lexical polysemy, each of which realizes only one type of polysemy out of the two possible, will constitute the lower level in this hierarchy while lexical-grammatical polysemy realizing both possible types of derivation lexical and lexical-grammatical will form its upper level. Schematically it may be illustrated as follows: Lexical-grammatical polysemy (presupposes both lexical and lexical-grammatical derivation) As it is seen from the scheme, lexical-grammatical polysemy may actually be considered to be the highest level of polysemy while lexical polysemy and lexical-grammatical variation constitute its lower level. Two-level hierarchical description of polysemy allows us to raise the question of creation of Integral Theory of Polysemy encompassing all levels and all cases of polysemy. Polysemy according to this theory should be considered as a factor regulating not only lexical-semantic, but also lexical-grammatical language system as it systemizes words not only according to their individual meanings, but according to lexical-grammatical classes as well. It should be mentioned that all previous studies of polysemy were one-sided and incomplete as they were devoted to only one type of polysemy lexical one. Meanwhile as our research showed there exist two more types of polysemy lexical-grammatical polysemy and lexical-grammatical variation. The Integral Theory of Polysemy proposed by us encompasses both levels of polysemy and all its types lexical polysemy, lexical-grammatical polysemy and lexical-grammatical variation. Lexical-grammatical variation presupposing derivation at the part-of-speech level and identity of the set of lexical semes together with lexical polysemy presupposing lexical derivation and identity of the part-of-speech semes constitute the lower level of polysemy while lexical-grammatical polysemy demonstrating both lexical and lexical-grammatical derivation form its upper, higher level. Lexical-grammatical polysemy presupposing derivation at both lexical and lexical-grammatical levels integrates, unites in itself both lexical polysemy and lexical-grammatical variation, hence the very name of the theory of polysemy integral. As for lexical polysemy and lexical-grammatical variation, both of them may be considered to be special cases of lexical-grammatical polysemy as each of them realizes only one of the two possible types of derivation (lexical polysemy demonstrates derivation only at lexical level while lexical-grammatical variation demonstrates derivation only at the part-of-speech, i. e. grammatical level). The mechanism of derivation in all kinds of polysemy is identical in each case one or two of the semes are replaced: a lexical seme is replaced in case of lexical polysemy, a part-of-speech seme is replaced in case of lexico-grammatical variation, both lexical and part-of-speech semes are replaced in case of lexico-grammatical polysemy proper. Thus there is a common mechanism of polysemy which is realized both at the level of a lexeme and the level of word classes. The reasons of all kinds of polysemy mentioned are also common and are due to the asymmetric duality of a language sign and the language tendency to economy. The undoubted commonness of these three types of polysemy allows us to unite them within the frames of one theory the Integral Theory of Polysemy which represents the most general view on the problem of polysemy. The notion of polysemy in this theory is essentially extended and is applied to both lexical and grammatical language levels. Polysemy regulates and systematizes both vocabulary and grammar and may be considered as a certain core organizing the language system.